Metaphysical Art(Pittura Metafisica):

Metaphysical Art is a style of painting that flourished mainly between 1911 and 1920 in the works of the Italian artists Giorgio de Chirico and Carlo Carrà.

The movement began with Chirico, whose dreamlike works with sharp contrasts of light and shadow often had a vaguely threatening, mysterious quality. De Chirico, his younger brother Alberto Savinio, and Carrà formally established the school and its principles in 1917.

While Futurism staunchly rejected the past, other modern movements identified a nostalgia for the now faded Classical grandeur of Italy as a major influence in their art. Giorgio de Chirico first developed the style that he later called Metaphysical Painting while in Milan. It was in the more sedate surroundings of Florence, however, that he subsequently developed his emphasis on strange, eerie spaces, based upon the Italian piazza. Many of de Chirico's works from his Florence period evoke a sense of dislocation between past and present, between the individual subject and the space he or she inhabits. These works soon drew the attention of other artists such as Carlo Carrà and Giorgio Morandi.

In 1917, in the midst of the First World War, Carrà and de Chirico spent time in Ferarra where they further developed the Metaphysical Painting style that was later to attract the attention of the French Surrealists.

Surrealism

Surrealism is a cultural movement that began in the early 1920s, and is best known for its visual artworks and writings.

Surrealist works feature the element of surprise, unexpected juxtapositions and non sequitur; however, many Surrealist artists and writers regard their work as an expression of the philosophical movement first and foremost, with the works being an artifact. Leader André Breton was explicit in his assertion that Surrealism was above all a revolutionary movement.

Surrealism has come to be seen as the most influential movement in twentieth century art. Figures like Salvador Dalí and Man Ray not only had an important influence on avant-garde art, but through their commercial work - in fashion photography, advertising and film - they brought the style to a huge popular audience. Following the demise ofMinimalism in the 1960s, the movement's influence also returned to art, and since the 1970s it has attracted considerable attention from art historians.

Surrealism was officially founded in 1924, when André Breton wrote Le Manifeste du Surréalisme. In it, he defined Surrealism as "Psychic automatism in its pure state, by which one proposes to express - verbally, by means of the written word, or in any other manner - the actual functioning of thought." In this, he proposed that artists should seek access to their unconscious mind in order to make art inspired by this realm.

Initially a literary movement, many Surrealists were ambivalent about the possibilities of painting, however, the group's leader, André Breton, later embraced and promoted painting. The work of Surrealist painters such as Joan Miró would be an important influence on the Abstract Expressionists in the 1940s.

Surrealist Manifesto:

Dictionary: Surrealism, n. Pure psychic automatism, by which one proposes to express, either verbally, in writing, or by any other manner, the real functioning of thought. Dictation of thought in the absence of all control exercised by reason, outside of all aesthetic and moral preoccupation.

Encyclopedia: Surrealism. Philosophy. Surrealism is based on the belief in the superior reality of certain forms of previously neglected associations, in the omnipotence of dream, in the disinterested play of thought. It tends to ruin once and for all other psychic mechanisms and to substitute itself for them in solving all the principal problems of life.

Abstract Expressionism

Abstract expressionism was an American post–World War II art movement. It was the first specifically American movement to achieve international influence and put New York City at the center of the western art world, a role formerly filled by Paris.

Although the term "abstract expressionism" was first applied to American art in 1946 by the art critic Robert Coates, it had been first used in Germany in 1919 in the magazine Der Sturm, regarding German Expressionism. In the United States, Alfred Barr was the first to use this term in 1929 in relation to works by Wassily Kandinsky.

The movement's name is derived from the combination of the emotional intensity and self-denial of the German Expressionists with the anti-figurative aesthetic of the European abstract schools such as Futurism, the Bauhaus and Synthetic Cubism. Additionally, it has an image of being rebellious, anarchic, highly idiosyncratic and, some feel, nihilistic.

 They were linked by a concern with varying degrees of abstraction used to convey strong emotional or expressive content. Although the term primarily denotes a small nucleus of painters, Abstract Expressionist qualities can also be seen in the sculpture of David Smith, Ibram Lassaw and others, the photography of Aaron Siskind and the painting of Mark Tobey, as well as in the work of less renowned artists such as Bradley Walker Tomlin and Lee Krasner. However, the majority of Abstract Expressionists rejected critical labels and shared, if anything, only a common sense of moral purpose and alienation from American society. Abstract Expressionism has nonetheless been interpreted as an especially ‘American’ style because of its attention to the physical immediacy of paint; it has also been seen as a continuation of the Romantic tradition of the Sublime. It undeniably became the first American visual art to attain international status and influence.

Post-painterly Abstraction

Post-painterly abstraction is a term created by art critic Clement Greenberg as the title for an exhibit he curated for the Los Angeles County Museum of Art in 1964, which subsequently travelled to the Walker Art Center and the Art Gallery of Toronto.

Among the prior generation of contemporary artists, Barnett Newman has been singled out as one who anticipated "some of the characteristics of post-painterly abstraction.

As painting continued to move in different directions, initially away from abstract expressionism, powered by the spirit of innovation of the time, the term "post-painterly abstraction", which had obtained some currency in the 1960s, was gradually supplanted by minimalism, hard-edge painting, lyrical abstraction, and color field painting.

Greenberg believed that, during the early 1950s, Abstract Expressionism (or, as he preferred to call it, "Painterly Abstraction") had degenerated into a weak school, and, in the hands of less talented painters, its innovations had become nothing but empty devices. But he also believed that many artists were advancing in some of Abstract Expressionism's more fruitful directions - principally those allied to color field painting - and these were yielding to a range of new tendencies that he described as "post-painterly."

Greenberg characterized post-painterly abstraction as linear in design, bright in color, lacking in detail and incident, and open in composition (inclined to lead the eye beyond the limits of the canvas). Most importantly, however, it was anonymous in execution: this reflected the artists' desire to leave behind the grandiose drama and spirituality of Abstract Expressionism.

Some critics, including Clement Greenberg and Barbara Rose, remarked on the decorative character of some post-painterly abstraction. In the past, Harold Rosenberghad described failed Abstract Expressionist paintings as "apocalyptic wallpaper," suggesting that decorative qualities were to be avoided. The new tendency suggested a change in attitudes.

Pop Art

Pop art is an art movement that emerged in the mid 1950s in Britain and in the late 1950s in the United States

Pop art presented a challenge to traditions of fine art by including imagery from popular culture such as advertising, news, etc.

In Pop art, material is sometimes visually removed from its known context, isolated, and/or combined with unrelated material.

The concept of pop art refers not as much to the art itself as to the attitudes that led to it.

Pop art often takes as its imagery that which is currently in use in advertising.

Product labeling and logos figure prominently in the imagery chosen by pop artists, like in the Campbell's Soup Cans labels, by Andy Warhol.

The paintings of Lichtenstein, like those of Andy Warhol, Tom Wesselmann and others, share a direct attachment to the commonplace image of American popular culture, but also treat the subject in an impersonal manner clearly illustrating the idealization of mass production. Andy Warhol is probably the most famous figure in Pop Art. Warhol attempted to take Pop beyond an artistic style to a life style, and his work often displays a lack of human affectation that dispenses with the irony and parody of many of his peers.

Proto-pop

It should also be noted that while the British pop art movement predated the American pop art movement, there were some earlier American proto-Pop origins which utilized "as found" cultural objects. During the 1920s American artists Gerald Murphy, Charles Demuth and Stuart Davis created paintings prefiguring the pop art movement that contained pop culture imagery such as mundane objects culled from American commercial products and advertising design

Hard-edge Painting

"Abstract Classicist painting is hard-edged painting. Forms are finite, flat, rimmed by a hard, clean edge. These forms are not intended to evoke in the spectator any recollections of specific shapes he may have encountered in some other connection. They are autonomous shapes, sufficient unto themselves as shapes."

Jules Langsner

Hard-edge painting is painting in which abrupt transitions are found between color areas. Color areas are often of one unvarying color. The Hard-edge painting style is related to Geometric abstraction, Op Art, Post-painterly Abstraction, and Color Field painting.

The term was coined by writer, curator and Los Angeles Times art critic Jules Langsner, along with Peter Selz, in 1959, to describe the work of painters from California, who, in their reaction to the more painterly or gestural forms of Abstract expressionism, adopted a knowingly impersonal paint application and delineated areas of color with particular sharpness and clarity. This approach to abstract painting became widespread in the 1960s, though California was its creative center.

Hard-edge abstraction was part of a general tendency to move away from the expressive qualities of gestural abstraction. Many painters also sought to avoid the shallow, post-Cubist space of Willem de Kooning's work, and instead adopted the open fields of color seen in the work of Barnett Newman.

Hard-edge painting is known for its economy of form, fullness of color, impersonal execution, and smooth surface planes.

The term "hard-edge abstraction" was devised by Californian art critic Jules Langsner, and was initially intended to title a 1959 exhibition that included four West Coast artists -Karl Benjamin, John McLaughlin, Frederick Hammersley and Lorser Feitelson. Although, later, the style was often referred to as "California hard-edge," and these four artists became synonymous with the movement, Langsner eventually decided to title the showFour Abstract Classicists (1959), as he felt that the style marked a classical turn away from the romanticism of Abstract Expressionism.

Minimal Art

Minimalism in visual art, generally referred to as "minimal art", literalist art  and ABC Art  emerged in New York in the early 1960s.

Initially minimal art appeared in New York in the 60s as new and older artists moved toward geometric abstraction; exploring via painting in the cases of Frank Stella, Kenneth Noland, Al Held, Ellsworth Kelly, Robert Ryman and others; and sculpture in the works of various artists including David Smith, Anthony Caro, Tony Smith, Sol LeWitt, Carl Andre, Dan Flavin, Donald Judd and others.

Frank Stella

He reacted against the expressive use of paint by most painters of the abstract expressionist movement, instead finding himself drawn towards the "flatter" surfaces of Barnett Newman's work and the "target" paintings of Jasper Johns. He began to produce works which emphasized the picture-as-object, rather than the picture as a representation of something, be it something in the physical world, or something in the artist's emotional world. Stella married Barbara Rose, later a well-known art critic, in 1961. Around this time he said that a picture was "a flat surface with paint on it - nothing more". This was a departure from the technique of creating a painting by first making a sketch. Many of the works are created by simply using the path of the brush stroke, very often using common house paint.

From the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, Stella created a large body of work that responded in a general way to Herman Melville’s Moby-Dick. During this time, the increasingly deep relief of Stella’s paintings gave way to full three-dimensionality, with sculptural forms derived from cones, pillars, French curves, waves, and decorative architectural elements. To create these works, the artist used collages or maquettes that were then enlarged and re-created with the aid of assistants, industrial metal cutters, and digital technologies.

In the 1990s, Stella began making free-standing sculpture for public spaces and developing architectural projects. In 1993, for example, he created the entire decorative scheme for Toronto’s Princess of Wales Theatre, which includes a 10,000-square-foot mural. His 1993 proposal for a kunsthalle and garden in Dresden did not come to fruition. In 1997, he painted and oversaw the installation of the 5,000-square-foot "Stella Project" which serves as the centerpiece of the theater and lobby of the Moores Opera House located at the Rebecca and John J. Moores School of Music on the campus of the University of Houston, in Houston, TX. His aluminum bandshell, inspired by a folding hat from Brazil, was built in downtown Miami in 2001; a monumental Stella sculpture was installed outside the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.

Kinetic Art

Kinetic art is art that contains moving parts or depends on motion for its effect.

The moving parts are generally powered by wind, a motor or the observer.

Kinetic art encompasses a wide variety of overlapping techniques and styles.

Kinetic art marked an important revival of the tradition of Constructivism, or Constructive art, that had been a presence in modern art since the 1910s. Parts of the movement also revived its utopian optimism, talking once again of the potential for art to spread into new areas of everyday life and to embrace technology in ways appropriate to the modern world.

But the movement also borrowed much from Dada, and in this respect parts of it were highly skeptical about the potential of technology to improve human life. Artists who were inspired by Dada, such as Jean Tinguely, used their work to express a more anarchic, satirical attitude to machines and movement. They suggested that rather than being humanity's helpmate, the machine might become her master.

Although ostensibly fascinated by machines, some Kinetic artists developed a profound interest in analogies between machines and human bodies. Rather than regarding machines and human bodies as radically different - one being soulless and functional, the other being governed by the sensitive, rational mind - they used their art to suggest that humans might be little more than irrational engines of conflicting lusts and urges, like a dysfunctional machine. This idea has deep roots in Dada, and betrays Kinetic art's debt to that earlier movement.

Kinetic drawing

Kinetic drawing makes use of the critical balance and creates 3D drawings from various materials. Kinetic means that the object holds energy, kinetic drawings usually are critical in their stability and are eager to find a more stable position, through gravity. From there they are built up again, better and stronger and with a repetition of this process a beauty of its own starts to grow by natural forces.

A variation of kinetic art in the realm of painting is ModulArt, where smaller modular elements allow a larger painting to be in flux, though not continuously but at the will of its creator, owner, or user. However, the painting stays is motion, offering alternative views and alternative interpretations.

Synchronism

Synchromism was an art movement founded in 1912 by American artists Stanton MacDonald-Wright and Morgan Russell. 

Their abstract "synchromies", based on a theory of color that analogized it to music, were among the first abstract paintings in American art.

Synchromism became the first American avant-garde art movement to receive international attention.

Synchromism was developed by Stanton MacDonald-Wright and Morgan Russell while they were studying in Paris during the early 1910s which is based on the idea that color and sound are similar phenomena, and that the colors in a painting can be orchestrated in the same harmonious way that a composer arranges notes in a symphony.

Dada

1916 yılında başlamış kültürel ve sanatsal bir akımdır. Dada Dünya Savaşının barbarlığına, sanat alanındaki ve gündelik hayattaki entelektüel katılığa ve erotizme bir protesto olmuştur. Mantıksızlık ve varolan sanatsal düzenlerin reddedilmesi Dada'nın ana karakteridir.

Jean Arp, Richard Hülsenbeck, Tristan Tzara, Jacques Magnifico, Marcel Janco ve Emmy Hennings’in aralarında bulunduğu bir grup genç sanatçı ve savaş karşıtı 1916 yılında Zürih’te Hugo Ball’in açtığı kafede toplandı. Dada bildirisi de burada açıklandı.

Dada isminin nereden geldiği konusunda kesin bilgi olmamakla beraber Fransızca ’da oyuncak tahta at anlamına gelen "Dada" bu kişilerin yarattığı edebi akımın ismi olarak seçildiği yönünde bir görüş vardır.

Bu akım, dünyanın, insanların yıkılışından umutsuzluğa düşmüş, hiçbir şeyin sağlam ve sürekli olduğuna inanmayan bir felsefi yapıdan etkilenir. Birinci Dünya Savaşı’nın ardından gelen boğuntu ve dengesizliğin akımıdır. Dada’cı yazarlar, kamuoyunu şaşkınlığa düşürmek ve sarsmak istiyorlardı. Yapıtlarında alışılmış estetikçiliğe Karşı çıkıyor, burjuva değerlerinin tiksinçliğini, pisliğini, iğrençliğini, berbatlığını, rezaletliğini vurguluyorlardı. Dada neden, niçin sorularına yanıt bulamayan negatif bir yaşama kavramıdır.

Resim sanatı dalında Dada’nın gerçek temsilcisi Marcel Duchamp olmuştur. 1913 yılında New York’ta Armony Show’da eserleri de sergilenen Duchamp’ın readymade’leri (hazır eserleri), örneğin bir şişe kurutacağı, bir psivar bu sanatçının özgün yapıtlarındandır. Bunlar gösteri yapıtlarıdır.

Toplumda yerleşmiş anlam ve düzen kavramlarına karşı çıkarak dil ve biçimde yeni deneylere giriştiler. Çıkardıkları çok sayıda derginin içinde en önemlisi 1919-1924 arasında yayınlanan ve Andre Breton, Louis Aragon, Philippe Soupault, Paul Eluard ile Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes’in yazılarının yer aldığı de Litterature(dö Literatür)'dü. Dadacılık 1922 sonrasında etkinliğini yitirmeye başladı. Dadacılar gerçeküstücülüğe (sürrealizm) yöneldi.

Section d'Or

• Section d’Or ( Fransızca’da “Altın Oran”) Puteaux Group olarak da bilinir. Ressamlar ve eleştirmenlerden oluşan bir gruptur.
• Kübizmden türemiş olan Orphism (Fransız şair Guillaume Apollinaire tarafından kullanılmıştır) ile ilişkilendirilmiştir. Orphizm, Kübizm'den doğan 20'nci yüzyıl sanat akımıdır (koyu renkleri ve kontrastları kullanmayı sürdüren, fakat Kübizm'den daha yumuşak bir stilde)
• 1912’den 1914’e kadar faaliyet göstermişlerdir.
• 1912’de grup ilk sergilerini Paris’teki Galerie la Boétie’de açtı. Ayrıca Section d’Or adını taşıyan kısa ömürlü bir dergi de yayınladılar. 1914 yılında I. Dünya Savaşı’nın başlamasıyla grup aktivitelerine son Verdi.
• Grubun adı ressam Jacques Villon tarafından önerilmiştir. Villon’un matematiksel oranların etkisine karşı olan ilgisi bunda etkili olmuştur. Bu oranlardan birisi de Altın Orandır. Grubun adı Kübist artistlerin geometrik formlara duyduğu ilgiyi temsil eder.
• Ana üyeler Robert Delaunay, Marcel Duchamp, Raymond Duchamp-Villon, Albert Gleizes, Juan Gris, Roger de La Fresnaye, Fernand Léger, André Lhote, Louis Marcoussis, Jean Metzinger, Francis Picabia, ve André Dunoyer de Segonzac’tır.

Der Blaue Reiter

• Vasiyl Kandinsky ve Franz Marc'ın 1911'de Almanya'nın Münih şehrinde kurduğu ressamlar birliği.
• Kandinsky ve Marc 1912'de, içinde plastik sanatlara ve müziğe yer verdikleri Der Blaue Reiter (Mavi Süvari) adında bir almanak yayınladılar ve iki sergi düzenlediler. Daha sonra Gabrielle Münter, Alexej Jawlensky, Marianne von Werefkin, Alfred Kubin, Paul Klee, Arnold Schönberg'in de katıldığı Mavi Süvari grubunun bildirgesi, dönemin entelektüel ortamında oldukça yankı uyandırdı. Sanatçılar yeni bir tinsel çağı haber verdiler. Bildirgede on dört ana makale vardı. Bu metinlerde Kandinsky ilk kez sanatçının doğayı kavraması ve saf estetik birliğe yönelmesindeki yegane aracı olarak gördüğü "içsel gereklilik"ten bahsetti.

• Der Blaue Reiter'in 1912'de Münchner Galerie Thannhäuser'da yaptıkları sergiden sonra kendilerini uluslararası duyurmayı başardılar. Bunun üzerine Heinrich Campendonk, Robert Delauney ve Lionel Feininger bu guruba katıldılar.
• 1905’te kurulan Die Brücke adlı ressamlar birliği gibi, Der Blaue Reiter stili realizm, naturalizm ve izlenimciliğe karşıydı.
• Die Brücke ve Der Blaue Reiter ressam birlikleri Fransız Fovizm'ini ilham alarak Alman dışavurumculuğu oluşturmuşlardır. Bu konuda bu iki birlik fikir ayrılığına düştü. Die Brücke'nin ressamları dışavurumculukla, 19. yüzyılının güzel ve gerçekçi stiline karşı bir stil oluşturmak istemişlerdi. Amaçları, doğanın güzelliğinin ve çirkinliğinin renklerini ve şekillerini oldukça sert ve köşeli gösterip eski stili eleştirmekti. Der Blaue Reiter 'nın ressamları ise parlak, çok renkli, simetrik kompozisyonla ve dinlendirici renkler ve şekiller ile doğayı göstermek istiyorlardı.

Futurism (fütürizm)

• Füturizm temeli İtalya olan 20.yy’ın başlarında ortaya çıkmış bir sanat akımıdır. Genelde güncel, çağdaş konseptleri ele almıştır (hız, teknoloji, gençlik, şiddet, arabalar, uçaklar vb)
• Sadece İtalya’da değil, İngiltere ve Rusya’da da paralel hareketler ortaya çıkmıştır.
• Fütürizm hemen hemen sanatın her dalını etkilemiştir (resim, heykel, seramik, grafik tasarımı, endüstriyel dizayn, tiyatro, film, moda, müzik, mimarlık)
• Bu hareketin öncüleri İtyalyan Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Gino Severini, Giacomo Balla, Antonio Sant'Elia, Tullio Crali ve Luigi Russolo ile Rus Natalia Goncharova, Velimir Khlebnikov, ve Vladimir Mayakovsky idir.

Cubo- Fütürizm

1913 yılında itibaren Rusyada Kübizm'e etki eden ve gelişteren, Rus Fütürizmi'nin temel okuludur.

Cubo-Fütürizm Kübizm'in formları ve Fütürizm'in dinamikliğini esas almıştır. 

Kazimir Malevich tarzı geliştiren kişidir ve bu tarzı 1912'de imzalanan fakat 1913 yılında yapıldığı bilinen "The Knife Grinder" isimli eserinde görülebilir. Fakat Kazimir Malevich Suprematizm olarak adlandırılan ve objektif olmayan bir tarz benimseyerek bu tarzı reddetmiştir

Die Brücke

• Dresden'de 1905'te kurulan Alman dışavurumcu sanat topluluğudur.Köprü anlamına gelmektedir.
•  Kurucu üyeleri; Fritz Bleyl, Erich Heckel, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner ve Karl Schmidt-Rottluff tir.
• Topluluğa sonradan katılanlar ise; Emil Nolde, Max Pechstein ve Otto Mueller'dir.
•  Bu akım, sanatla yaşam rasında bir yakınlık kurmayı amaçlar.
• 20. yüzyılda ortaya çıkan modern sanatın gelecekteki gelişmelerine temel oluşturan bu akım, dışavurumculuk akımını yaratmıştır.

Die Brücke bazen Fauves’le karşılaştırılır. İki akım da duyguların dışa vurumunda pek de doğal olmayan, canlı parlak renkler kullanır. Yine iki akımda da resimler basit, ham çizgilerle yapılır ve tamamen soyut çalışmalara  karşı bir antipati vardır

Erich Heckel (31 Temmuz 1883, Döbeln, Almanya-27 Ocak 1970, Radolfzell, Almanya) 

 Alman dışavurumcu ressam, heykelci ve özgün baskı sanatçısı. Özellikle çıplak figürleri ve manzara resimleriyle tanınır.

1904'te Dresden'de mimarlık öğrenimi görürken tanıştığı Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, Fritz Bleyl ve Ernst Ludwig Kirchner ile birlikte 1905'te Die Brücke (köprü) grubunu kurdu. İlk yapıtları Van Gogh'a duyduğu hayranlığı yansıtır. 1911'de Berlin'e yerleştikten sonra biçimci resimsel kompozisyonlara yöneldi. Bununla birlikte renk kullanımı ve çarpıtılmış mekân betimlemeleri aracılığıyla çarpıcı görüntüler yaratmayı başardı. "Göl Kıyısındaki Kadınlar" (1913; Wilhelm-Lehmbruck Müzesi, Duisburg, Almanya) adlı resmi gelecekçi ressamların kırılmış ışıklarla sağladıkları geçici etkilerin izlerini yansıtır.